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Hello, listeners.

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This is the Science of Self, where you improve your life from the inside out.

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Today is Monday, the 23rd of June, 2025.

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Today's featured book is Think Like a Genius, How to Go Outside the Box, Analyze Deeply, Creatively Solve Problems, and Innovate, from the Mental Models for Better Living book series by Peter Hollins, of course.

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Today we focus on Chapter 3, Socrates.

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In exploring the mental model of Socrates, we find three primary traits that we should incorporate into our own thinking process, curiosity, intellectual honesty, and unconventional thinking.

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Now, there's still a lot of mystery surrounding Socrates' personal life, and although he never actually wrote anything down, we've learned a lot about him by the conversations and dialogues recorded by his students and followers over the generations that followed his life.

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He's famous, of course, for the Socratic Method, which is a question-driven journey toward understanding, and we're going to learn how to apply it in our own lives.

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In Socratic questioning, there are six key question types that we learn about, beginning with clarifying assumptions to challenging viewpoints and exploring implications.

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Now, if we can learn and adopt Socrates' mindset to our own, we can inquire deeply into our own beliefs, we can enhance our debating skills, and we can even structure arguments or scientific experiments.

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So, get ready for a thought-provoking journey, questioning everything, and embracing the childlike curiosity of the question, but why?

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One of the purest and most obvious ways to engage and practice our curiosity is to ask questions.

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Nothing could more plainly reflect a hunger for understanding, the student’s mindset, or a willingness to open up to the new and unknown.

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The scientific method can be thought of as a formalized way to ask questions of the universe, and a way to shape our inquiry and interpret the answers we get.

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But it all starts with questions (even questions like, “what if…?”).

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When it comes to the art of asking questions, we need look no further than Socrates, whose style of questioning his own thinking, the thinking of others and reality itself has come to be called the Socratic method.

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Good questions end up allowing us to triangulate understanding.

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Take a textbook, for example.

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It is necessarily broad and cannot hope to cover all the subtleties involved.

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If we fully accept what we read, then we are set on a singular path.

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If we ask questions, we are able to see that the path itself contains twists and turns and may not even be accurate.

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Different lines of inquiry are generated, and we understand that there are multiple paths, each with their own perspective.

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Questions allow us to both clarify misunderstandings and reinforce what we already know.

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In the end, we come to an understanding of the same textbook and the information within that is nuanced and more accurate.

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Luckily for us, teachers have known the value of questions for literally thousands of years.

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The most helpful framework for generating insightful questions comes from none other than Socrates himself, the ancient Greek philosopher perhaps best known for being Plato’s teacher, as well as being executed by the state for “corrupting the minds of the youth.” His method of teaching was largely in the form of dialogues and questions, appropriately called the Socratic method.

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Socrates himself wrote nothing during his lifetime, but we can see his philosophy expounded in the works of Plato and other contemporaries.

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In these plays and dialogues, Socrates was described as someone who was deeply insightful, curious, and in possession of incredible mastery over language and logical argument.

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Nevertheless, he was a controversial figure in his time and offended many, since his criticism of much of Athenian culture and politics at the time was considered impious.

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During his life, Socrates and his work were often mocked and derided in plays and writings, and it was mainly after his death that his followers attempted to preserve his contributions in the form of written dialogues, essentially conversations between him and themselves.

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Unfortunately, because Socrates lived so long ago, historians have little information on who he was as a person, beyond the ideas communicated by his contemporaries and followers.

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Nevertheless, even with the fragments we do have, we can recognize something of the genius traits that have not changed much in the thousands of years since Socrates lived.

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When it comes to curiosity, intellectual honesty and patience, we may be hard-pressed to find an individual who better demonstrates these traits than Socrates.

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Understanding the spirit of the Socratic method

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When you boil it down, the Socratic method is when you ask questions upon questions in an effort to dissect an assertion or statement for greater understanding.

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The person asking the questions might seem like they are on the offensive, but they are asking to enrich both parties and discover the underlying assumptions and motivations of the assertion or statement.

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It is from this process that we have a framework for effective questioning.

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Imagine that you make a proclamation, and the only response you get is a smug, “Oh, is that so?

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What about X and Y?” Unfortunately, the know-it-all questioner is on the right path.

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American law schools are notorious for using the Socratic method.

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A professor will ask a student a question, and then the student will have to defend their statement against a professor’s questioning regarding the merits of a case or law.

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It’s not adversarial by nature, but it does force someone to explain their reasoning and logic—and of course, gaps in knowledge and logical flaws will probably surface.

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This process serves the goal of deeper understanding and insight.

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It may cause defensiveness, though it is not offensive in itself.

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So what exactly is the Socratic method, beyond asking a series of tough questions that make people uncomfortable?

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When you do it to yourself, you force understanding.

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You are putting yourself through an incredible stress test that will make you question yourself and your logic.

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It will lead you to discard your assumptions and see what you might be missing.

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If you are mercilessly questioned and picked apart with Socratic questioning, what remains afterward will be deeply comprehended and validated.

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If there is an error in your thinking or a gap in your understanding, it will be found, corrected, and proofed with a rebuttal.

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That’s deep learning.

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Applied curiosity

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As a brief example, imagine you are telling someone that the sky is blue.

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This seems like an unquestionable statement and an easy truth.

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Obviously, the sky is blue.

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You’ve known that since you were a child.

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You go outside and witness it each day.

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You’ve told someone that their eyes were as blue as the sky.

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But remember, our goal with questions is to better acquire knowledge as to the sky’s blueness.

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So imagine someone asks why you know it is blue.

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There are many ways to answer that question, but you decide to say that you know the sky is blue because it reflects the ocean, and that the ocean is blue, even though this is erroneous.

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The questioner asks how you know it is a reflection of the ocean.

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How would you answer this?

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This brief line of Socratic questioning just revealed that you have no idea why or how the sky reflects (or doesn’t) the blue of the planet’s oceans.

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You just attempted to explain an underlying assumption, and you were mildly surprised to discover that you had no idea of the truth.

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This is the profound starting point of the Socratic method—we are assumed to know nothing, and nothing is taken as a given.

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We make our minds blank and attempt to simply observe, to reason from scratch, and to see where we arrive, without falling back on guesses, assumptions, denials or outright lies.

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In a way, this open-mindedness is the heart of real curiosity.

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Have you ever noticed how a small child keeps asking “why?” after everything you say?

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They are not operating from the same foregone conclusions that you as an adult are, and they genuinely don’t know.

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Everything is new to them.

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Though slightly annoying, this frame of mind is the one most likely to perceive genuinely, and to be most receptive to new discovery.

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Geniuses are not those that have all the answers, it turns out, but rather all the questions!

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Curiosity, in a nutshell, is the heart of the Socratic method.

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A series of innocent and simple questions directed at yourself, honestly and earnestly answered, can unravel what you thought you knew and lead you to understand exactly what you don’t know.

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This is often just as important as knowing what you do know because it uncovers your blind spots and weaknesses.

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Recall that the method was used as a teaching tool, so it is designed to impart deeper understanding and clarify ambiguities.

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There are six types of Socratic questions as delineated by R.W.

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Paul.

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After just briefly glancing at this list, you might understand how these questions can improve your learning and lead you to fill in the gaps in your knowledge.

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The six types of questions are:

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1.

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Clarification questions—why exactly does it matter?

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2.

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Probing assumptions—what hidden assumptions might exist?

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3.

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Probing rationale, reasons, evidence—what proven evidence exists?

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4.

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Questioning viewpoints and perspectives—what other perspectives exist?

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5.

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Probing implications and consequences—what does this mean, what is the significance, and how does it connect to other information?

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6.

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Questions about the question—why is this question important?

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Clarification questions: What is the real meaning of what is being said?

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Is there an underlying hidden motivation or significance to this piece of information?

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What do they hope to achieve with it?

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Suppose we have the same assertion from above, that the sky is blue.

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Here are some sample questions from each category you could plausibly ask to gain clarity and challenge their thoughts.

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• What does it matter to you if the sky is blue?

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• What is the significance of this fact to you?

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• What is the main issue here?

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• What exactly do you mean by that?

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• What does that have to do with the rest of the discussion?

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• Why would you say that?

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Probing assumptions: What assumptions are the assertions based on, and are they actually supported by evidence?

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What is opinion and belief, and what is evidence-based fact or proven in some other way?

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Unless you are reading a scientific paper, there are always inherent assumptions that may or may not be accurate.

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• Is your blue my blue?

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• Why do you think the sky is blue?

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• How can you prove or verify that?

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• Where is this coming from exactly?

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• So what leads you to believe the sky is blue?

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• How can you prove that the sky is blue?

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Probing rationale, reasons, and evidence: How do you know the evidence is trustworthy and valid?

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What are the conclusions drawn, and what rationale, reasons, and evidence are specifically used to reach these conclusions?

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What might be missing or glazed over?

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• What’s the evidence for the sky’s color, and why is it convincing?

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• How exactly does the ocean’s reflection color the sky?

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• What is an example of that?

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• Why do you think that is true?

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• What if the information was incorrect or flawed?

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• Can you tell me the reasoning?

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Questioning viewpoints and perspectives: People will almost always present an assertion or argument from a specific bias, so play the devil’s advocate and remain skeptical about what they have come up with.

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Ask why opposing viewpoints and perspectives aren’t preferred and why they don’t work.

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• How else could your evidence be interpreted?

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• Why is that research the best in proving that the sky is blue?

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• Could the same be said about proving the sky is red?

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Why or why not?

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• What are the potential flaws in this argument?

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• What is the counterargument?

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• Why doesn’t the sky color the ocean instead of the other way around?

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Probing implications and consequences: What are the conclusions and why?

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What else could it mean, and why was this particular conclusion drawn?

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What will happen as a consequence, and why?

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• If the sky is blue, what does that mean about reflections?

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• Who is affected by the sky’s color?

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• What does this information mean, and what are the consequences?

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• What does this finding imply?

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What else does it determine?

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• How does it connect to the broader topic or narrative?

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• If the sky is blue, what does that mean about the ocean?

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• What else could your evidence and research prove about the planet?

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Questions about the question: This is less effective when you are directing this question to yourself.

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Aimed toward someone else, you force people to ponder why you asked the question or why you went down that line of questioning, and prompt them to realize that you had something you wanted to evoke.

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What did you mean when you said that, and why did you ask about X rather than Y?

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• So why do you think I asked you about your belief in the sky’s color?

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• What do you think I wanted to do when I asked you about this?

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• How do you think this knowledge might help you in other topics?

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• How does this apply to everyday life and what we were discussing earlier?

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At first, it sounds like a broken record, but there is a method to the madness.

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Each question may seem similar, but if answered correctly and adequately, they go in different directions.

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In the example of the blue sky, there are over twenty separate questions—twenty separate answers and probes into someone’s simple assertion that the sky is blue.

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You can almost imagine how someone might discover that they know next to nothing and are only able to regurgitate a limited set of assumptions without context or understanding.

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The Socratic method as a thinking technique

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You can apply the Socratic method to ensure that you are understanding what you think you are.

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You can think of it as a systematic process of examining and double-checking yourself.

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The end result will always be a win, as you either confirm your mastery or figure out exactly what is missing.

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Suppose you hear from a friend that the Spanish Inquisition was a fairly humane process of light interrogation, with only minor maimings and lashings (various sources put the death toll at, on average, around one hundred thousand people).

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In this instance, you can use the Socratic questions to correct a mistake.

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The six question types, as a reminder:

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1.

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Clarification questions—why does it matter?

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2.

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Probing assumptions—what hidden assumptions might exist?

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3.

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Probing rationale, reasons, evidence—what proven evidence exists?

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4.

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Questioning viewpoints and perspectives—what other perspectives exist?

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5.

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Probing implications and consequences—what does this mean, what is the significance, and how does it connect to other information?

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6.

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Questions about the question—why is this question important?

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To check the veracity of this statement, you might ask:

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• What exactly is being said, and why does it matter?

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• What is that statement based on?

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• What makes you think it is true?

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Where’s the evidence for it?

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• Who might have this perspective, and why?

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What might be the opposing perspective?

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Why is that?

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• What does this mean for Spanish history as a whole?

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Are all history textbooks incorrect?

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What else will be affected by this knowledge?

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• Why do you think I might be asking you about this?

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What about using the Socratic questions for deeper understanding of a topic, such as the biology of the brain?

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The questions don’t change—all six of the above questions can be used in the same way to more deeply understand a scientific topic such as brain structures.

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You’ll learn, you’ll poke holes, and you’ll understand.

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Isn’t that what this whole thing is all about?

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Turning the questions on ourselves

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The Socratic method teaches us the power of asking questions, and how genuinely curious and open-minded inquiry is at the root of every new piece of understanding or learning.

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But to do this sort of thing well takes a lot more practice than it might first seem.

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In a way, it can sometimes be harder to get rid of our false assumptions and limiting beliefs than it is to comprehend something new and true from scratch.

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Each of us has long held our personal set of biases and prejudices, assumptions and personal worldviews that may or may not be accurate or helpful to us.

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When we ask honest and direct questions (even and especially of those things we completely take for granted), we can start to unpack those fixed and inaccurate mental habits.

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Nevertheless, we won’t get far if we insist on lying to ourselves, denying facts, or clinging to certain ideas to protect our egos.

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The Socratic method, in other words, is best practiced with healthy doses of intellectual honesty and a humble attitude.

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One of the traits that was perhaps less pronounced in Einstein, in our previous chapter, is certainly evident here in Socrates’ work.

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Having humility and being able to abandon an idea or belief in the face of evidence is not just a question of logic and awareness—it takes maturity to admit that you are wrong, or that you don’t know something.

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It takes a certain kind of self-honesty to look at your way of thinking and admit that it could be better, or that certain presumptions have maybe been a little lazy or confused.

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In Socrates’ dialogues, both parties are not just having an ordinary conversation; the implication is that both are doing something noble—seeking the truth, with one another’s aid.

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It is not a question of catching out the other, boasting or winning an argument—this is limited, ego-based thinking that will only trip up genuine understanding.

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Rather, Socrates uses his classic “gotcha!” moments to demonstrate, in real time, the irrationality of a certain position.

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Socrates was famous for leading people down certain paths—he’d get them to agree to a series of statements and then present them with a conclusion that would immediately illustrate to them the error of their assumption.

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Or, he would “play dumb” and behave as if he knew nothing at all about a topic, so that he could, with the help of his conversation partner, piece together the ideas one step at a time.

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As Socrates knew well, this is the approach that most quickly reveals any hidden biases or incorrect assumptions.

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And that concludes the excerpt from the book, Chapter 3.

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Incorporating Socratic principles into our daily lives can lead to personal growth and more meaningful interactions.

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Let's take a quick recap of the primary takeaways from today's episode.

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Socrates' genius traits included curiosity, intellectual honesty, and non-conventionality.

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Not much is known about Socrates' personal life.

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His students and followers wrote down dialogues and plays containing some of his main ideas, where he demonstrated a heightened ability for rational argument and insight.

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Like other people considered great philosophical thinkers, Socrates took total ignorance as a starting point and cleared his mind so that he could inquire genuinely into the nature of things.

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His Socratic method is a classic, question-driven approach to seeking out knowledge and understanding.

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To practice this in our own lives, we can use six main types of questions to get to the heart of the matter.

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We can ask clarification questions, questions that probe assumptions, explore rationale, reasons, and evidence, challenge viewpoints and perspectives, consider implications and consequences, and ask questions about the nature of the question itself.

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Our goal is to find out why certain ideas matter, to see what hidden or unconscious assumptions we hold, to look more rationally and closely at evidence, to consider and weigh up potential perspectives we haven't considered, to think about the meaning of the answer we're looking for and how it relates to other pieces of information we have, and to examine the way we're framing our question and why.

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The Socratic method can be used to inquire more deeply into our own beliefs, but it can also help us debate more effectively with others.

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We can use the fundamentals of Socratic dialogue to structure more logical arguments or design experiments that follow the scientific method, like making a hypothesis and testing it against evidence and observation to reach an insightful conclusion.

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To be more like Socrates, we can get into the habit of routinely asking questions of our own deeply held beliefs and assumptions, taking nothing for granted.

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Be like the child who always asks, but why?

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And I'll leave you with this last reminder from Socrates himself.

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The unexamined life is not worth living.